Lord God forgive me! Essay Example for Free

Lord God forgive me! Essay The grenade had been thrown and it goes through its stages building up to the horror of the war. (Swish swish swish BANG)! This quote shows that there is silence at first and Sherriff shows what the grenade would do. He shows the tense of the atmosphere for example the type of smooth faint noise the grenade would make when it is in the air and then it builds up to the great noise when the grenade lands on the ground. This quote shows the tense of the atmosphere and the stages it goes through until it seems completely realistic. Sherriff uses the this example in the stage direction to show the horrors of war through the atmosphere, through noises he is able to show the violence there is in the war, this quote can help the director create the scene and help the audience give a better understanding of the horrors of war. R. C Sherriff uses a variety of different structures of language through the characters, he shows the audience on how the soldiers had spoken most of the time through out the war and how they might speak due to their class. For example, upper class soldiers would speak in a more posh accent and have a better use of grammar whereas the lower class soldiers would use army jargon such as minnies and pineapples as well as slang such as characters dropping the letters in some words, for example a soldier says e instead of he. Sherriff had created characters with this characteristic on language so he could show the rank the men are in. Osborne is from an upper class therefore he uses language in a good sense of grammar and he speaks words in a posh accent. Osborne: Cheerio. This quote shows that a character called Osborne is from an upper class since he uses words like Cheerio which is a posh word. Mason a cook who constantly speaks slang shows his characteristics to be from a lower class since he uses that sort of language and has a poor level of work in the war. Mason: E said the leopard cant change its spots. This quote shows that a character called Mason is from the lower class since he speaks slang, for example he drops his h when saying he. Sherriff had initially done this because this reflects the rank the men are from so it can give a clear understanding of the characteristics to the audience. The characters Raleigh and Stanhope are significant roles in the play. Raleigh holds the characteristics of a nai ve, inexperienced and gormless person who had just joined the company. Stanhope, who is more opposite to Raleigh, he runs the company which shows that he is much more experienced. Raliegh had known Stanhope from school even though Stanhope was three years older than Raleigh. The characters mainly represent the horrors of war by talking about violence in their conversations and actually going through the process of it when coming to the points of attacking and fighting. Through out the course of the play the characters interact with each other dramatically and emotionally. Their behaviour reflects how they had survived the war, for example they would try not to talk about bad and emotional events and they would try to adapt to positive points while drinking rum. Stanhope talks about upcoming violent events. Stanhope: We must expect this attack on Thursday morning. This quote shows how the characters would represent the horrors of war by talking about an attack which hold the structures of violence, it makes the audience imagine a fight of some sort and injuries which reflect the horrors of war. When the soldiers were to attend an attack six soldiers went but five came back and one had died which was Osborne. Stanhope: Four men and Raleigh came back sir. Colonel: Im very sorry. Poor Osborne. This quote shows that one of the soldiers had died which shows death as a part of the horrors of war and the men interact kindly with each other at this point because their fellow friend had just died. There are many ways the Stanhope and Raleigh had interacted with each other through out the play. At first points of the play Raleigh was more of the shy person and had seemed more scared to talk to Stanhope. Stanhope: How did you get here? Raleigh: I was told to report to your company, Stanhope. This quote shows how Raleigh had reacted in a more respectable manner and had called him Stanhope instead of his original name, Dennis. In addition this quote shows that Raleigh had deliberately joined Stanhopes company which shows that he cares for Stanhope. The play shows how the soldiers were able to cope with the horrors of war since Stanhope had come back from an attack and he had started to celebrate with the other soldiers as soon as he gets back. Mason: I thought I might tell you sir, this is the last bottle. Stanhope: The last bottle! Why damn it, we brought six. Mason: I know sir, but five of them have gone. This quote shows that even after Osbornes death, the soldiers are not that emotional because they face their problems to alcohol and try not to remember those emotional and heartbreaking moments. This quote shows the behaviour the soldiers had that would help them to cope with the horrors of war. Overall this play shows the horrific effects of war and that it puts a bad example on a person, and soldiers are not treated fairly due to their personal problems. In my opinion I think that there is no reason for war, it does nothing other than create a bigger stage of conflict. It ruins many soldiers life, when they could have had a ordinary life but war can put immediate effect on it. Overall I think that R. C Sherriff had tried to outline the horrors of war, the causes of it and how it can also cause soldiers to suffer. 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Team Data Collection Essay Example for Free

Team Data Collection Essay BIMS, Ballard Integrated Managed Services, Inc. is a corporation specializes in the services of food and housekeeping to corporations and institutions. The general manager, Barbara Tucker, has noticed that over the last four months the turnover rate has shot up to 64%. Not only is the turnover rate higher than usual, but also employees seemed unmotivated to do their job. There are more employees walking around doing nothing and more employees not doing their job well enough, resulting in complaints from the hospital administration in which they are working. Debbie Homer, HR manage, has developed an employee survey instrument to try to identify why employees are leaving and why each employee is no longer motivated. Overview Ballard Integrated Managed Services, Inc, BIMS, has a turnover rate of 64%. There is normally a high turnover rate; however, this is a big increase over the last four months. Barbara Tucker is concerned about this increase along with sick days more frequently used and employees wasting time instead of doing their assigned jobs. The cost of replacing workers and the lost hours due to sick time and malaise is causing BIMS to lose profits. Barbara Tucker agreed to allow Debbie Horner to conduct a study on workers satisfaction. Debbie Horner is a HR manager with experience in conducting such a study. Debbie Horner created a survey that focused on work conditions, shift hours, quality of training, pay levels, job security, and demographics. Debbie Horner hypothesized that the high turnover rate would correlate with the level of job satisfaction. Instrument for Data Collection The instrument to gather the data will be a 10 question work related survey and a four question demographic section. This survey will be given to all non-management employees. The 10 work related questions are given a numerical value starting at one for very negative to five being very positive, giving Debbie Horner a quantitative statistic. The four demographic questions will require a direct answer giving Debbie Horner a qualitative result. Types of Data The way the data is being collected is by handing out satisfaction surveys to the staff. The staff is to answer the questions based on a numerical scale  in reference to their satisfaction levels. The types of data being collected are quantitative data as well as qualitative data. The survey can gather more information as well as what is being collected, such as gender group and age range. This would fall under the qualitative data section. The results alone would be considered qualitative data. Level of Measurement There are different levels of measurement by which data can be classified. For this situation, the ordinal level of measurement would be useful for measuring the data. Ordinal measurement scales are for relative ranking and ordering the attribute into different categories. One benefit of using an ordinal scale over a nominal scale is ordinal scales more information and more precise data. The support for the office is Sally. She has been given the responsibility and the task of data entry, made some errors where she put in the number six instead of five for the rankings but was very accurate in the amount of time an employee has worked for the company. From these results, one could see differences in the employees that have worked here several years and those who have not. One can also see the difference in someone who is in a management position and someone who is not. Code the Data and Clean the Data In the case of the BIMS research survey the data is coded in terms of numbers. The spreadsheet created has been done so with all of the responses placed in a numerical data set. The spreadsheet has the question numbers at the top of the sheet and then following the lines of the data set the number responses file down the sheet. If there was any data missing when the information was entered, the decision  was made to just enter a zero. After entering the data, it must be reviewed to catch any errors. Cleaning the data is done with basic steps. Of course the data is imported from the source, but there should always be some backup involved in order to keep the integrity of the data. In some cases the next step would be manipulation or spellchecking. This depends on what kind of data is involved. However, in this case spell checking is not necessary, but manipulation is. For instance with manipulation, they may have to add a column or two, or even add a zero randomly for missing data. Below is numbers 6-10 on the data set, the data has been cleaned up by changing the number 6 to the number 5 thus correcting the errors Sally made. Where a question wasn’t answered a zero was added to indicate missing data. Conclusion Understanding that there was a need to increase productivity at Ballard Integrated Managed Services, Inc., information on how to increase productivity was an important plan to implement. It was the responsibility of the Human Resources manager, Barbara Tucker, to ensure that methods were used to observe the employees in their operative positions to find out why there was such an increased turnover rate. After collecting all of the quantitative data, there was a clear connection between the employees overall job satisfaction, and customer service. One of the most important components of Barbara’s management efforts was the use of a survey. The survey provided critical information that led to an increased effort in changes from upper management. The satisfaction survey provided critical clues as to the overall performance of employees. There were even some data issues that included opinions from employees who had been on the job for more than five years. Using survey tools are important to the overall  productivity of employees and upper managerial staff. Often times, employees may find it difficult to communicate with direct supervisors because they may be intimidated; however, developing the ability to express themselves through employee satisfaction surveys, they may feel more relaxed and open to further discussions. In summary, customer satisfaction surveys can provide critical information about what the market needs and what your company may need in order to move forward.

Culture Conflict In Canada

Culture Conflict In Canada Culture is defined as, a particular society at a particular time and place. This definition describes that cultures in various locations and during different time periods are unique, and cannot be duplicated. In a multicultural nation, such as Canada, there are various cultures with different views, beliefs and opinions that have been brought by the new immigrants and shared within their ethnic communities, as well as their families. At times these cultures and views can clash, and result in one interpretation of what is believed to be right to override the other. This is when the relation of the concept of culture relating to crime can be made. At times what may seem to be viewed as normal or non deviant within one culture can be deemed illegal and unlawful by another culture. This however becomes a culture shock when people of various subcultures are forced to abide to the culture of the metro poles they live in. This concept of culture relating to multiculturalism can relate to cu lture of conflict theory, the subculture theory and the differential association theory. It is not only within ethnic groups that cultural conflicts exist, but also within subcultural groups that are within a larger context of society. The concept of culture invoking crimes is substantially based upon the fact that subcultures clash because their culture is under the interpretation that their values, beliefs and judgements are opposite to what they believed should be deemed criminal. The result of crime within various cultures, are caused by the differential values of various cultures, the lack of education and adaptation of Canadian culture in the multicultural metro poles, and the opportunities that exist in order to prevent crime. Culture conflict theory states that the root cause of criminality can be found in a clash of values between differently socialized groups over what is acceptable of proper behaviour. For example, for some, protesting for ones rights and freedoms by blocking a road is deemed illegal from the place of origin they immigrated from, therefore when viewing Canadian citizens continually protesting on the roads may cause them to believe that the individuals committing these acts are criminals. Canada being a multicultural nation, harbours many different cultures that may in fact not be used to the behaviour and cultural views of the greater Canadian society in which they belong in. This often is due to the conduct norm defined by Sellin as, the shared expectation of a social group relative to conduct. This expectation of what is considered to be normal and deviant are socially created by the broader society and forced upon individuals to follow. Canada for example has progressed greatly from a conservative society, to a very liberal and free democratic society. Many things have changed with regards to conventions and law in Canadian society; such changes arent so readily accepted by older generations or various cultures, nor are they easily adapted to. This results in crimes being committed by people that arent actually aware of committing an illegal action. This explains Sellins point that crime is nothing more than that an argument is that of what is deemed to be right or wrong. Selling also pointed out that there were two types of cultures in conflict, they were primary and secondary conflict which also led to the clash of cultures and the result of crime. Primary conflict is described as that in which there is, a fundamental clash of cultures that occurs.An example that is very common in contemporary society is the idea of honour killings by parents. Honour killings are committed usually to daughters by parents or older siblings because the behaviour of the child is believed to have brought shame to the family. On June 16th 2010, a father and son were sentenced to life in prison after pleading guilty for the murder of Aqsa Parvez, a 16-year-old girl of Pakistani descent who wanted to wear western clothes and get a part-time job like her Canadian peers. Although this example seems to be drastic, it is believed by the individuals that commit these crimes that this is completely normal behaviour that has been practiced in their native lands. This example shows that what may have been deemed illegal and murder by Canadian culture was not the case from where these two individuals came from. The individuals in this case were not aware that they had committed something wrong, because based on their culture it is their responsibility to uphold the family name and do whatever it takes to protect it. The question then remains if this should actually be considered a crime because the person who committed it came from a different culture which did not hold the same views. Or would it be the responsibility of each individual residing in Canada to adapt and learn the conduct norms and completely forget about their values and beliefs. In this primary example, it can be made clear that since Canada is home to many immigrants, a crime like this may occur again because of the lack of knowledge of what is considered to be right and wrong in a new culture. Although this act may be considered to be unexplainable to many parents as well as citizens it is clear that many citizens still carry on their culture of their homelands, crimes such as these are bound to continue to flourish in a multicultural society. Secondary conflict is described by Sellin to be that of which when smaller cultures within the primary cultures clash. An example of secondary conflict is the smaller cultures of drug dealers, prostitutes and gamblers that are regarded as clashing with the middle class and upper class values of society. For example for the middle class, making a decent wage through legal means is a way of life and what is considered to be what is considered right, however for those individuals that participate in drug dealing and prostitution it is also seen as their way of life. Therefore when laws are created by the middle class and upper class citizens they are created in a way in which clashes with the way of life of the low class citizens who commit these crimes as a way of earning money and living. Therefore, this crime that is socially constructed by the higher class results in the only way of life the lower class citizens have being deemed as criminalized activity. These crimes rates continue to flourish because these individuals way of life has been criminalized by the upper class. Until a new form of opportunity is granted for these individuals they will continue to maintain their deviant ways of life. Thus, this secondary conflict will only disappear when the economically marginalized are able to adapt to the cultural norms of the middle and upper class. Subcultures are defined as a collection of values and preferences that is communicated to sub cultural participants through a process of socialization. Therefore, this statement is reiterating that it is through interacting with a subculture that one learns how he or she is to act and what he or she is to believe in. This interconnects with subculture theory which is, a sociological perspective that emphasizes the contribution made by various socialized cultural groups to the phenomenon of crime For example, street gangs continually function in a sub cultural level where they have their own set of values, beliefs and roles that may not necessarily adapt to the Canadian laws of society, however due to socializations that have made them a member of the group they do not see themselves committing crimes. For example, there are violent subcultures that Ferracuti and Wolfgang describe as individuals learning from being constantly exposed to violent practices as a means of problem solving. This is done by these individuals because violence is seen as a better precaution than other forms of adaptation. Therefore when charging a gang member for brutally attacking another gang member, one has to realize that within the subcultures of these individuals and their gangs what they are doing is only what they have learned to do in response to what has been taught to them. Therefore the question then comes into question of whether the subcultures of these gangs are the reasons why the crime rate is considered so high, and if so what can be done to change the mentalities of these subcultures to adapt to a more acceptable approach. Many of these subcultures committing crime has been a direct result of the differential opportunity provided to each of these individuals. For example, there are two different opportunity for those individuals that fall into the lower class for a pathway to success, one is measured through legitimate means and the other illegitimate means. Examples of legitimate means are obtaining a job and making an honest living, while illegitimate means are selling drugs, prostituting etc. The reason why most lower class individuals chose illegitimate means over legitimate opportunity is because these measures are readily available. These jobs and opportunities that the lower class have to do in order to survive are always disapproved by society, which results in these individuals committing crimes. These so called delinquents are defined as individuals whose behaviours violate basic norms of society and those whose crimes once known by the police get them involved in the criminal justice system. It is described that deviance is just as much an adjustment to conform as is deviance to conform to expectations. What this statement means is that each of these individuals are trying their best to adapt to a society in which everything they do is being considered a crime, therefore at the most they are trying to adapt as much as they can to the expectations and norms of the middle class which do not include the lower class. There are three delinquent subcultures that are pointed out which are criminal subcultures, conflict subcultures and retreatist subcultures. Criminal subcultures are ones in which criminal role models are available for imitation by those just entering the subculture. For example, gang leaders that own a gun and have been inside jail are mentoring these new recruit into their subculture and teaching them all that they may know. Conflict subcultures are when participants try to seek status through violence. This could be a scenario where a gang member is trying to earn the trust of his elder gang member, therefore he commits a few crimes to prove that he is worthy of their trust, somewhat like an initiation process. Another subculture is the retreatist subculture where drug use and withdrawal from society dominate. This for example is one of those high drug trafficking cases where the individual is always under the influence of an illegal substance, and prefers to not be in the public eye so he or she will not get caught. Through these various subcultures, one can see that these are still common in our contemporary society, and are continuing to add crime to our statistics. Conflict culture, subcultures and differential association theory all underlie the reasons why there is a constant issue with crime in the multicultural metro poles. Individuals are unable to break free of their own cultural barriers, and adapt to Canadian cultural barriers that are frankly different and built upon social norms. What one would consider normal in his birthplace may be deemed a crime in Canadian society which is why the cultural conflicts continue to create more crime within Canada. It is not only the cultural conflict, but the processes and structure of subcultures that also deviate in exceptional amounts of crime being committed that is not deemed by the wrong doers to be criminal. One can uncover the fact that aside from the cultural conflicts, these individuals are put in this pathway because only illegitimate means of survival are provided toward for them. This society is built upon socialization of upper class views, morals and beliefs which results in the middle class and lower class being swept under a rug and continuously charged with crimes that they may consider a way of living. The only way in which we are to break free of this cultural crime being committed is by educating the general public about the importance of adaptation of Canadian laws, creating programs for those individuals in dangerous subcultures and allowing all classes to create the conduct of the norms. .

To Dam, or Not To Dam Essay -- Marc Reisner Ecology Environmental Essa

To Dam, or Not To Dam â€Å"The River, slightly milky from glacial sediment, tumbles down rocky chutes, boils through tight canyons, and glides across beds of agatelike stones. In the distance, poking through storm clouds, are plunging slopes dense with virgin hemlock and fir†¦Intruding into this primeval scene are two decrepit dams† (Reisner, 382). In this essay by Marc Reisner, his standpoint on the issue of dams is very well seen. Reisner talks of the ecological damages that dams create. The debate over dams has been heated in recent years, their harmful effects and overall abundance is the topic for such debates. But are dams as bad as everyone says they are, do dams do more harm than good, or more good than harm? Emphasis should be placed on comparing the ecological effects verses the economical benefits. There are many pros and cons for the ecological side of this debate. One pro is that dams help areas that would otherwise be waterless and barren support life. Taken from a pamphlet prepared by the Committee on Public Awareness and Education, â€Å"Water is the vital resource to support all forms of life on earth. Unfortunately, it is not evenly distributed over the world by season or location. Some parts of the world are prone to drought making water a scarce and precious commodity, while in other parts of the world it appears in raging torrents causing floods and loss of life and property. Throughout the history of the world, dams and reservoirs have been successfully in collecting, storing and managing water needed to sustain civilization† (CPAE, 1). This is a major benefit to the ecology of the world, as the quote stated water is the basis of life, the human body depends on water for survival. Although ther... ...to benefit the United States. Even those who oppose dams benefit from them in one way or another, destroying them would give our nation’s economic system a detrimental blow. Finally for the solution for this dilemma, I don’t believe there is an general solution. Each dam should be looked at individually, if the costs outweigh the benefits, then it should be destroyed, and vice versa. The issue of dams will not be easily solved. Ever since the first dam was built there has been controversy, and as long as one stands so will the debate. References McKibben, Bill. Daybreak. In A Forest of Voices: Conversations in Ecology – 2nd Edition (pp. 156-169). Mayfield Publishing Company. Committee on Public Awareness and Education. (1997, May). Benefits and Concerns About Dams – an Argumentaire. Retrieved March 3, 2003, from http://www.icold-cigb.org/BandC.PDF

Alzheimers Disease Essay -- Alzheimers Disease Essays

In this day and age, it seems as though almost everyone has experience a loved one taken away form a very serious disease known as Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s disease is unbelievably devastating for everyone affected by it. This disease is causing major economical problems such as less occupancy in the nursing homes, and hospitals due to the rising population of elderly men and women being diagnosed with it everyday. Because there is not yet a cure for this disease and the percent of the population being diagnosed keeps rapidly rising, more time and money needs to go towards Alzheimer’s research. Alzheimer’s disease is a form of dementia which is a brain disorder that impairs mental functioning. Dementia attacks the part of the brain which controls memory, language, and thought. It makes everyday tasks like remembering to brushing your teeth, or to pay your bills next to impossible to do, which is why so many people who are diagnosed with this disease are in complete care. This disease has different phases, the first being slight forgetfulness and then the persons emotions may heighten as well as language impairment, violent outbursts, loss of bladder control and from there it keeps getting worse until complete dysfunction of the brain occurs and eventually death, which most of the time is the result of infection. Alzheimer’s disease got its name from the German doctor, Dr. Alois Alzheimer. In 1906, he noticed that there were abnormal clumps and bundles of fibers i...

John Steinbecks East of Eden - A Study in Human Development Essay

East of Eden: A study in human development  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The characteristics of people are formed by multiple factors. In many situations, children are raised under similar conditions, however, their later characteristics and life choices are very different. In the book, East of Eden, author John Steinbeck explores the development of humans, from childhood, to adulthood, and eventually, to death. East of Eden, by John Steinbeck, is a genealogical novel about the lives of the Trasks, particularly the main character in the book, Adam Trask. Along the way, the Hamiltons, Ames, and many other characters are introduced. Steinbeck makes a point of showing the continually changing nature of some characters, while describing the ceaseless staticness of others. In East of Eden, John Steinbeck presents his views on the construction of human behavior and the components that are incorporated in it. Setting is an important element in East of Eden. Described are beautiful, panoramical views of the surrounding landscapes of the Salinas Valley, California. "The Salinas Valley . . . is a swale between two ranges of mountains. . . . . On the wide level acres of the valley, the topsoil lays deep and fertile. . . . . Under the live oaks, shaded and dusky, the maidenhair flourished and gave a good smell, and under the mossy banks of the watercourses whole clumps of five-fingered ferns and goldy-backs hung down" (Steinbeck p. 480). Steinbeck then goes on to describe the human history of these areas. The groups of peoples that lived there are described in sweeping generalizations. "First there were Indians, an inferior breed without energy, inventiveness, or culture . . . their warfare was a weary pantomime. Then the hard, dry Spaniards came explor... ...dies the original Hebrew text and finds that the verb used there is "timshel." Timshel’s literal English translation is "thou mayest." During the course of the book, Steinbeck transforms the word into a metaphor for a style of living. It comes to describe the freedom of choice in one’s life. Steinbeck recognizes the fact that one's environment can affect them. However, he also recognizes one can work with what they are given and make the best of it. Steinbeck best sums up these views in a dialog between Samuel and Adam. "You can’t make a racehorse of a pig," said Adam. "No," said Samuel, "but you can make a very fast pig" (659).    Works Cited Steinbeck, John. The Grapes of Wrath, The Moon is Down, Cannery Row, East of Eden, Of Mice and Men. New York: Heinemann/Octopus, 1979. pp.475 - 896. Steinbeck, John. East of Eden. New York: Viking, 1952.

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Methods

Discuss the main differences between qualitative and quantitative approaches to data collection and analysis in management research. Your answer should make reference to the philosophical assumptions which underpin these methodological approaches. Introduction Whenever a decision is made to undertake a piece of research a method for conducting the study is required. In scientific research the techniques typically used for data collection and analysis are those which allow the evaluation of data to test a predetermined hypothesis (Zikmund, 2000). An example of this is a laboratory-based experiment where the researcher can be in full control of all the variables involved and can therefore be sure that any change in the phenomena under investigation is a direct result of an identified and controlled stimulus. In marketing research however, which is usually reliant on some aspect of human influence, it has been proposed that such a uniform, rigid approach is not appropriate: â€Å"There is never a single, perfect research design that is the best for all marketing research projects, or even a specific type of marketing research task. (Malhotra and Birks, 2000: p. 70) The aim of this assignment is to critically evaluate the quantitative and qualitative approaches to research, specifically focusing on the marketing perspective. To do this, consideration is firstly given to the basic differences between the qualitative and quantitative approaches, considering the seemingly opposing theoretical paradigms from which they have origina ted. Subsequently the development of the marketing discipline is examined with a specific focus on how and why different research methods have been employed in the field. Attention is Page 1 of 1 iven to the need for marketing to address both the issue of verifying existing hypotheses, and the requirement to develop new theory. As there appears to be no ideal research method for use in marketing it would seem that what is important is being critically aware of the strengths and weaknesses of the approaches available. Finally, therefore, the notion of pluralism, or methodological triangulation, is explored as such an approach is often used to exploit the strengths and minimise weaknesses in research design through the combination of two or more research methods, often from opposing theoretical paradigms. Basic differences between quantitative and qualitative research Qualitative research can be defined as: â€Å"†¦the collection, analysis and interpretation of data that cannot be meaningfully quantified, that is, summarised in the form of numbers. † (Parasuraman et al, 2004: p. 195) Whereas quantitative research can be defined as: â€Å"†¦the collection of data that involves larger, more representative respondent samples and the numerical calculation of results. † (Parasuraman et al, 2004: p. 195) Historically it has been considered that science based disciplines such as mathematics and physics are especially suited to quantitative research methods. Such methods are considered to be objective and lead to numerical, absolute outcomes, which can be verified through repetition and further testing (Zikmund, 2000); in other words the knowledge is external to the knower (Milliken, 2001), and therefore is available be found by whoever conducts the necessary research (Cunningham, 1999). This view of natural science can be considered to fit within the positivist paradigm, where a paradigm can be thought of as theoretical framework for looking at a situation and a basis upon which phenomena can be analysed and interpreted Page 2 of 2 (Gill and Johnson, 2002). Kuhn (1970) supports the need for paradigms on the basis that they bind disciplines together, and without them there would be no valid position from which to undertake research. Deshpande (1983) suggests that the acceptance of a particular theoretical aradigm is typically followed by a choice of a specific set of research methods that appear to fit within it. This is perhaps exemplified by the significant use of laboratory experiments in pure scientific disciplines. Within the social sciences however there has been a long-standing debate surrounding which philosophical standpoint, or paradigm, it is appropriate for research methods to be derived from (Milliken, 2001). Cohen et al (2000) consider there to be two m ajor, apparently contradictory, views relating to how research should be conducted within social science. The first aligns social science with natural science and therefore implies that research in the field should be directed towards the search for universal laws which regulate individual social behaviour. The second focuses on the human element of social science research, with recognition of the notion that people are not inanimate objects and therefore cannot be treated as such. Aligning social science with natural science arguably implies that data collection and analysis is best performed from a positivist standpoint. As research methods favoured by positivists tend towards those reliant on quantification (Gill and Johnson, 2002), it would follow that in management research the focus should be on quantitative research methods. Research conducted from the positivist viewpoint is usually considered to be reductionist in nature, and is often termed hypothetico-deductive, as it aims to derive a result in relation to a predefined hypothesis (Zikmund, 2000). Conversely, an approach to research which embraces human individuality and places emphasis on how people perceive and give meaning to their own Page 3 of 3 socially created world, can be considered constructivist (Hunt, 1994), and phenomenological (Gill and Johnson, 2002). The focus from this standpoint is therefore on understanding, interpreting and building theory rather than objectively testing, deducing and verifying an existing hypothesis. Such an approach can be considered inductive in nature and therefore favours the adoption of qualitative research methods. ollows: â€Å"†¦the most telling and fundamental distinction between the paradigms is on the dimension of verification versus discovery†¦quantitative methods have been developed most directly for the task of verifying or confirming theories and†¦qualitative methods were purposely developed for the task of discovering or generating theories. † (Reichardt and Cook, 1979: cited in Deshpande, 1983: p. 105 ) This can be explained further as At the extreme of the inductive spectrum lies the concept of grounded theory developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967). Here the researcher builds theory based entirely on the data obtained in a particular study without the influence of predetermined knowledge or preconceived hypotheses. Taking deduction to the extreme hypotheses can only ever be tested, raising the question of how it is possible to obtain a hypothesis in the first place. This presents a number of dilemmas with regard to research in the field of management, including whether it is more appropriate to test existing hypotheses or to develop new theory. The theory-testing versus theory-generation debate is particularly significant in the field of marketing as, due to the relative youth of the discipline, marketers are faced with the challenge of both obtaining and maintaining respect and credibility for the work that has been done so far (Bartels, 1983); and continuing to generate theory needed to develop a coherent, holistic body of knowledge which will clear up marketing’s existing â€Å"theory mess† (Gummesson, 2002: p. 349). Page 4 of 4 Development of research in the field of marketing The discipline of marketing, which came about as a departure from economics not long after 1900, originally had no identity of its own. There was no predetermined framework for its development, nor any real expectation of what it should, or could, become (Bartels, 1983). The way the discipline started to develop however led to a belief that it had â€Å"†¦meritorious scientific character† (Bartels, 1983: p. 34), which subsequently influenced ideas about the way in which credible research in the field should be conducted. Consequently approaches to research in marketing have historically been dominated by deductive processes (Hyde, 2000). Milliken (2001) supports this with the observation that within the marketing literature there has been little attention paid to qualitative research. If marketing was universally accepted to be akin to a pure science then this may be an acceptable situation. It has been suggested however that, rather than being a science, marketing is actually an art which belongs both to the world of business and the school of humanities (Halliday, 1999). It was noted by Deshpande (1983) that in the early 1980s there were only four major textbooks dealing with the metatheoretical issues in marketing, and it can therefore be understood that â€Å"†¦self conscious reflection on theory construction in marketing is of fairly recent origin. † (p. 104). Peter (1982), supported by Deshpande (1983), argues that the dominant philosophical approach applied in marketing is that of logical empiricism. Such a positivist approach forces a â€Å"†¦search for causality and the assumption of determinism† (Hunt, 1994: p. 7), which directs those conducting marketing research towards hypotheticodeductive methods for the verification of existing theories rather than development of new ones. Page 5 of 5 Goulding (1999) suggests that the popularity of the positivist paradigm may be down to the more transparent rules which it projects with regard to the basis of hypotheses and their testing, resulting in a clearer picture of what is a ccepted to be known and what remains unknown or untested. As marketing is a relatively young discipline, quantitative methods have therefore been regularly favoured over qualitative methods in an attempt to establish credibility and respectability (Bartels, 1983). Bass (1993) unreservedly supports quantitative research and the scientific view of marketing, on the basis of the need to make general laws and principles which can be widely applied. To emphasise his position further Bass (1993) repeatedly refers to the discipline as not as â€Å"marketing† but as â€Å"marketing science†. Despite this apparent favouritism of qualitative research, for establishing integrity and credence, it has been suggested that marketing as a discipline has failed to develop a coherent theoretical foundation due to the inappropriate selection and use of methods within the framework of logical empiricism (Leone and Schultz, 1980). criticises how qualitative research is implemented. Gummesson (2001) also He questions whether or not it is ppropriate to make a jump from a subjective answer given by a person, perhaps in the form of a questionnaire response, to hard facts about the population being studied, and furthermore if a model being selected for use in marketing research can be an appropriate proxy for the particular situation being studied. Gummesson (2001) instead advocates an interactive approach to research in marketing based on â€Å"†¦a humanistic, hermeneutic and phenomenological paradigm. (p. 40). Deshpande (1983) is in agreement with this and proposes that, rather th at the incorrectly using quantitative research methods, the shortfall in theory development in the field may lie in the inappropriate adoption of a quantitative paradigm where a qualitative one would be more appropriate: â€Å"If we ignore the qualitative paradigm, we also by definition exclude the principal systematic means of theory generation. † (Deshpande, 1983: p. 106) Page 6 of 6 The dominance of logical empiricism in marketing has therefore been seen as potentially detrimental to the discipline, because the successful development of an appropriate holistic and sound body of theory is necessary for the credibility of the field in both management and academe (Bartels, 1983). Hunt (1994) however observes that scholars in the field of marketing, particularly those reviewing papers for publication in academic journals, may themselves be responsible for the lack of theory generation by being over critical when reviewing the work of those who attempt to make an original contribution. According to Gummesson (2001) this behaviour reinforces the belief that to build a publications record, and a respectable reputation, marketers are being encouraged to test existing theory using quantitative methods rather than generate theory through qualitative investigation. This, it has been suggested, has resulted in there being no development in general management marketing theory over recent decades, leaving marketing as an array of disjointed theories and ideas founded on arguably obsolete principles Gummesson (2001). The lack of credibility given to qualitative research techniques in marketing from the academic perspective does however appear somewhat ironic given that such methods are widely adopted in marketing research in industry (Deshpande, 1983). Although it may appear that qualitative marketing research is a relatively recent revelation, Deshpande (1983) argues that this is not the case. He observes that there was significant interest in the topic in the 1950s and 1960s. In the early 1980s, Fern (1982) suggested that the reason one specific qualitative technique, focus groups, had failed to gain prominence was a lack of empirical testing, which would allow the theory development necessary to acquire credibility. In other words a qualitative technique struggled to generate recognition because it could not satisfy the positivistic evaluation criteria needed to do so. This is perhaps indicative of the historical power of positivism in marketing academia in determining what can be accepted as credible Page 7 of 7 nd what cannot, regardless of whether or not techniques are accepted in the commercial environment. Malhotra and Peterson (2001) suggest that for marketing to move forward in the twenty-first century it is necessary to bridge the gap between the academic and commercial positions. There is evidence of increasing acceptance of qualitative methods in marketing research, especially in managing research as the marketplace evolves. For example Kozinet z (2002) developed â€Å"netnography† as a technique for gaining insight into online communities based on a combination of the principles of ethnography and focus groups. Quantitative techniques it would appear still have their place in marketing research too, despite the criticisms levelled at them. The SERVQUAL questionnaire for example, originally developed by Parasuraman et al (1988), relies on the collection of data which can be statistically manipulated to determine levels of service quality. Notwithstanding the substantial criticism it has received (see Buttle, 1996), it is still being used in marketing research today (see e. g. DeMoranville and Bienstock, 2003). What it would consequently appear important to recognise is that both quantitative and qualitative methods have their place in marketing research; neither is sufficient on its own, and there is potentially for significant advances to be made if marketing researchers acknowledge this (Deshpande, 1983). Triangulation and methodological pluralism There is a place in marketing research for both qualitative and quantitative research. There is also a significant risk that overly staunch advocates of a single paradigm will forego the quality of their research by valuing the methodological choice above the aim of the particular Page 8 of 8 study (Bartels, 1983). From a marketing research perspective the importance therefore lies in recognition of the relative advantages and disadvantages of both the qualitative and quantitative research and the understanding of the strengths and weakness of particular methods. Cahill (1996) supports this with the recognition that qualitative and quantitative techniques can be complementary, and Milliken (2001) suggests that the reality of a real research situation demands compromise between the seemingly opposed philosophical standpoints on which the methods are based. Combining qualitative and quantitative methods presents the researcher with an opportunity to compensate for the weakness in each approach. (Deshpande, 1983), and within the field of marketing there appears to be a significant move towards combining qualitative and quantitative research methods (Milliken, 2001). Perry (1998) emphasises the benefit of case study methodology in marketing and suggests that there is no need to consider induction and deduction to be mutually exclusive when selecting a research method. He emphasises that realism is the most appropriate paradigm from which to undertake marketing research as it allows the building of new theory whilst incorporating existing knowledge. Strength in method combination does not necessarily have to include qualitative and quantitative approaches. Hall and Rist (1999) present a marketing study based on the triangulation of purely qualitative research methods including focus groups, observation and document examination. They argue that doing this eliminates the risks of relying on a single method and therefore enhances research quality and strengthens the credibility of qualitative techniques. Page 9 of 9 Methodological pluralism, whilst appearing to offer reconciliation between opposing theoretical paradigms in relation to research method choice, does itself introduce debate and criticism. Gill and Johnson (2002) for example note that embracing realism can be seen as accepting positivism at the cost of phenomenology as it may involve the †¦operationalization and measurement of social reality (stimuli) and action (response)†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p. 170). Consequently, combining research methods can itself become part of the argument rather than a solution. Conclusion The decision of whether to adopt qualitative or quantitative methods in management research historically appears to be based on the philosophical assumptions upheld by the individual researcher or the discipline in which he or she is work ing. A paradigmatic dichotomy between positivism and phenomenology (or constructivism) would seem to have resulted in a situation where, in some instances, the research methodology choice is deemed more significant than the subject of the particular study. Marketing is a relatively young discipline within the field of management and, as such, is faced with the challenge of obtaining and maintaining credibility. To do this it has been proposed that it needs to both test existing theory and generate new theory, however the processes required to achieve these two goals can be seem to stem from diametrically opposed paradigms: theory-testing being achievable through deductive methods; and theory generation relying on an inductive approach. This incommensurability has however been challenged with the assertion that what is important is selecting an appropriate methodology for a particular study, rather than fitting a Page 10 of 10 study to a method. Methodological triangulation has been suggested as a means of achieving this, with a move towards a paradigm of realism where the relative advantages and disadvantages of a number of research methods can be embraced. Whilst at face value this approach may appear to offer a compromise offering the best practical solution to the methodological choice dispute, it also introduces criticism of its own which, in turn fuels the debate further. The general aim of this discussion, to consider the differences between qualitative and quantitative research methods, has itself been conducted from an ostensibly positivistic standpoint. In fact any discussion, comparison or assessment of research methods is arguably starting from a predetermined premise that an objective evaluation is being undertaken (Gill and Johnson, 2002), and can therefore be seen to be embracing positivist ideals. Taking into account the amount of attention that has been paid to philosophical approaches to management research; the ambiguities that are apparent; the ongoing search for the most suitable and appropriate means for conducting studies; and the motivation to establish and maintain credibility, it would seem unlikely that end to the debate regarding research methods in management is in sight: â€Å"Like the earth being round, thus lacking a natural end, the journey in Methodologyland has no end. You search again and again and again, just as the term says: re-search, re-search, re-search. (Gummesson, 2001: p. 29) Page 11 of 11 References Bartels, R. (1983), â€Å"Is marketing defaulting its responsibilities? †, Journal of Marketing, 47(4), pp. 32-35 Bass, F. M. (1993), â€Å"The future of research in marketing: Marketing Science†, Journal of Marketing Research, 30(1), pp. 1-6 Buttle, F. (1996), â€Å"SERVQUAL: review, critique, research agenda†, European Journal o f Marketing, 30(1), pp. 8-32 Cahill, D. J. (1996), â€Å"When to use qualitative methods: a new approach†, Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 14(6), pp. 16-20 Cohen, L. , Manion, L. and Morr, K. 2000), Research Methods in Education, 5th Edition, Routledge: London Cunningham, A. C. (1999), â€Å"Commentary confessions of a reflective practitioner: meeting the challenges of marketing’s destruction†, European Journal of Marketing, 33(7/8), pp. 685-697 DeMoranville, C. W. and Bienstock, C. C. (2003), â€Å"Question order effects in measuring service quality†, International Journal of research in Marketing, 20(3), pp. 217-231 Deshpande, R. (1983), â€Å"Paradigms Lost: On theory and method in research in marketing†, Journal of Marketing, 47(4), pp. 101-110 Fern, E. 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P. 1982), â€Å"Current issues in the philosophy of science: Implications for marketing theory – a panel discussion†, in Marketing Theory: Philosophy of Science Perspectives, Bush, R. F. and Hunt, S. D. (eds. ), Chicago, American Marketing, pp. 11-16 Reichardt, C. S. and Cook, T. D. (1979), â€Å"Beyond qualitative versus quantitative methods†, in Qualitative and Quantitative Methods in Evaluation Research, Cook, T. D and Reichardt, (eds. ) Beverley Hills, CA: Sage Zikmund, W. G. (2000), Business Research Methods, 6th Edition, Orlando, USA: The Dryden Press, Harcourt College Publishers Page 13 of 13